Cognitive Turn and Linguistic Turn :: Philosophy Symbols Papers

Cognitive and Linguistic Turn My first goal is to question a received view about the development of Analytical Philosophy. According to this received view Analytical Philosophy is born out of a Linguistic Turn establishing the study of language as the foundation of the discipline; this primacy of language is then overthrown by the return of the study of mind as philosophia prima through a second Cognitive Turn taken in the mid-sixties. My contention is that this picture is a gross oversimplification and that the Cognitive Turn should better be seen as an extension of the Linguistic one. Indeed, if the Cognitive Turn gives explicit logical priority to the study of mind over the study of language, one of its central features is to see the mind as a representational system offering no substantial difference with a linguistic one. However, no justification is offered for the fundamental assimilation of the nature of a mental representation with that of a linguistic symbol supporting this picture of the mind, although the idea that a system of mental representations is identical in structure with a system of linguistic symbols has been argued over and over. I try to demonstrate this point through a close critical examination of Fodor's paradigmatic notion of 'double reduction.' My second claim is that the widespread contemporary assimilation of a mental representation with a symbol of a linguistic kind is no more than a prejudice. Finally I indicate that this prejudice cannot survive a rigorous critical examination. 1. Introduction: linguistic symbol and mental representation A good deal of that important branch of contemporary philosophy which goes by the loose term of Analytical Philosophy lives, in my opinion, with a distorted representation of its own past, and consequently, with an inaccurate appreciation of the nature of its own achievements. As a matter of fact the belief is widely spread among analytical circles that the birth of Analytical Philosophy is the result of a Linguistic Turn taken by its founding figures G. Frege and B. Russell and then expanded into various directions by their notorious or less notorious followers. (1) To put it in a nutshell, the Linguistic Turn — of which historians give in fact conflicting accounts — (2) can be characterized by saying that it turned (better said, intended to) every philosophical problem — and most of all every psychological and epistemological one — into a problem about language, or at least into a problem dependent upon problems about language.

Language learning styles used by students in globalization

English linguistic communication is truly considered as a important linguistic communication since it has been used for pass oning worldwide. Therefore, larning English is really common in many states and linguistic communication acquisition manners are used by pupils in globalisation. Language learning manners are the nucleus factors that help make up one's mind how the pupils learn a foreign linguistic communication. A foreign linguistic communication is a linguistic communication studied in an environment where it is non the major vehicle for every twenty-four hours communicating and where input in the linguistic communication is classified ( Rebecca, 2003 ) . In an article by Mulalic et Al. ( 2009 ) , pupils larning manners have been unnoticed as an irrelevant faculty in the acquisition procedure. Apparently, one time lecturers become cognizant that different pupils learn assorted manners, they try to suit those learning manners in the schoolroom. When looking into lectors ‘ instruction patterns, it is possible to understand that the bulk of the lectors are non sensitive with their pupils larning manners. The jobs occur when lectors are non cognizant of the significance to make and research acquisition manners. Harmonizing to Felder ( 1996 ) , how much pupils learn in the category is determined partly by the pupils ‘ ability and anterior readying, and the capableness of their acquisition manners and the lector ‘s instruction manners. More specifically, Godleski et Al. ( 1984 ) , the pupils tend to be bored and inattentive in category, do ill on trials, acquire discouraged about the class, and may reason that they are non good at the topic of the class and give it up. In a research survey by Izzo ( 1980 ) , confirmed that the size of category is an of import physical factor which influences the pick of method, decreases the sum of single attending that the instructor gives to each pupil. However, she argued that little categories are preferred for linguistic communication acquisition and correlated significantly with linguistic communication accomplishment. In the research article by Tan ( 2008 ) , identified the chief troubles and jobs of EFL scholars in authorship by analysing the nature of their writing mistakes. The outstanding causes of the mistakes were attributable to the restriction of vocabulary size, low grammar apprehension and obstructor from first linguistic communication. In the determination of the survey, six effectual instructional schemes were suggested so that instructors can follow a more successful attack to better pupils ‘ composing proficiency such as acquisition words, instruction of cardinal sentence construction, demoing reading method, rectifying mistake and category meeting, apprehension of first linguistic communication intervention, and composing inducement. Since English linguistic communication has been introduced in Cambodia, EFL pupils ‘ acquisition manners have adapted to the linguistic communication acquisition. In the past pupils were likely to acquire cognition through listening to the instructors while instructors lacked specific developing about learning methodological analysis. In the survey by ( Nguyen 2001 ) , the learning manner of Kampuchean pupils is typically memorisation at the disbursal of realistic intent. Consequently, they would instead larn grammar and reading than on hearing and speech production. Specifically, most Kampuchean scholars feel more comfy and gratifying with holding things which are written on the whiteboard in order that they can compose them down and survey at place. Hopefully, pupils hope to acquire press releases of sum-ups or talk lineations. Furthermore, some Kampuchean scholars reveal that they face a batch of force per unit areas of how to accommodate the new cultural environment and how to acquire on with their equals in category. Some feel lonely because the ways they dress or talk are so different. As for the instance of EFL Cambodian schoolrooms, Keuk ( 2009 ) , found that most instructors use practical accustomed learning methods such as vocabulary interlingual rendition from 2nd linguistic communication to first linguistic communication. As a consequence, pupils are taught to retrieve balls of English linguistic communication with chiefly focused on grammar and vocabulary.1.2 Problem statementWithout acknowledging proper acquisition manners, pupils seem non to accomplish better consequences in their academic public presentation. Furthermore, pupils are less likely to better their linguistic communication acquisition really rapidly, as they do non cognize the effectual acquisition manners. In malice of the assortment of academic classs which the EFL university pupils take in English, and the tough attempts universities and lectors apply to develop pupils ‘ linguistic communication accomplishments, the pupils ‘ linguistic communication public presentation, unluckil y, has been boring. This could be recognized to the diverse acquisition manners and wonts which are used by pupils in analyzing English, including preferring holding things written on the whiteboard to listening to the lectors ‘ account, jitteriness of speech production in schoolroom, preferring grammar interlingual rendition signifier foremost linguistic communication to 2nd linguistic communication while larning English linguistic communication, and preferring working separately and personally to working in braces or groups. Didactically, most of the lectors pattern traditional instruction method, grammar interlingual rendition method signifier foremost linguistic communication to 2nd linguistic communication while learning English linguistic communication. The concluding noticeable job is that big categories pose some important challenges in category room scene and decreased effectivity of schoolroom direction.1.3 Aims of the surveyThis survey aims specifically to place the acquisition manners of EFL private university pupils in Cambodia. More interestingly, this survey intends to research the grounds why Kampuchean university pupils use different manners in their learning English as a foreign linguistic communication.1.4 Research inquiriesThis research aims to look into the effectual factors in larning English as a foreign linguistic communication. The undermentioned research inquiries can be formulated for the survey below. 1. How do Kampuchean university pupils describe their acquisition manners used in larning English as a Foreign Language? 2. Why do the pupils use different manners in their acquisition English?1.5 Significance of the StudyAs a portion of educational development, this survey is important for four grounds. First, researching pupils ‘ acquisition manners in English in Cambodian higher instruction will assist better pupil ‘s linguistic communication acquisition. Second, the survey will cast visible radiation on the effectual acquisition manners of EFL successful Cambodian university pupils, which can be used as a theoretical account of larning English. Third, this research will assist to lend to the utility of appropriate vocabulary instruction and larning techniques in order to advance vocabulary acquisition, peculiarly in EFL Cambodian context. In add-on, from a methodological perceptual experience, it is besides hoped that the findings from this survey will be utile for supplying meaningful suggestions for get the better ofing the jobs that may originate sing the acquisition manners of pupil s and how to suit assorted scholars in EFL schoolroom.16 Definition of cardinal footingsIn an effort to better understand this survey, some cardinal footings are defined as follows. EFL pupils ‘ acquisition manners mean techniques, behaviours, actions, wonts and stairss employed by scholars larning English as a Foreign Language to better and develop their different linguistic communication accomplishments: speech production, listening, reading, and composing. Furthermore, the term larning manner refers to the general attack preferred by the pupil when larning a topic, geting a linguistic communication, or covering with a hard job ( Oxford 2001 ; Reid 1998 )1.7 Proposed ChapterThis paper will be chronologically composed of five chief chapters. Chapter one is the debut, dwelling of background of the survey, research worker job, research aim, research inquiry, significance of the survey, and definition of cardinal constructs. Chapter two is literature reappraisal, which discusses on the jobs and solutions of the survey. Chapter three is methodological analysis, which consists of research design, participants, method, instruments, tools informations aggregatio n, information analysis, cultural consideration, strengths and restriction of research. Chapter four is treatment and findings of the survey, analysing the informations collected from the interviews. Chapter five is decision and recommendation, sum uping the jobs and findings of the survey and proposing some schemes to assist better the failings. Furthermore, these five chapters are followed consistently by mentions and appendices.CHAPTER2REVIEW OF LITERATURE2.1. Specifying acquisition mannersIn a survey by Aqel & A ; Mahmoud ( 2006 ) determined EFL pupils ‘ acquisition manners which are used in An-Najah National University. Consequently, the consequence of the findings suggested a assortment of learning English manners, including altering pupils ‘seats, bring forthing effectual activities, and utilizing ocular AIDSs, which are suited with larning manners used by pupils. Furthermore, the research workers suggested computing machine as a necessary class in English Departm ent and Department of Teaching Methods which give its successful undertaking in doing pupils rely on themselves to develop their linguistic communication proficiency. Besides, the research worker proposes that a survey should be conducted at other universities to detect the usage of larning manners of EFL pupils and the nexus between these manners and pupil ‘s features. In the research survey by Marin ( 2003 ) , the focal point of the probe was on the linguistic communication acquisition manners looking that pupils face linguistic communication troubles with great accomplishment but with small attempts. However, other pupils faced these troubles with a small success and satisfaction. Besides, this article proved that each scholar had his/her good manner of larning through his/her civilization, educational background and personality. Heffernan ( 1999 ) as cited in Aqel ( 2006 ) , determined that many surveies on linguistic communication acquisition manners applied and gained otherwise base on motive and result, degree of linguistic communication, old ages of learning linguistic communication, learning methods, hard content, and pupils ‘ background and sex. He besides added that successful linguistic communication scholars use assorted manners in larning linguistic communication, and the instructor can assist in increasing acquisition manners through learning schemes that likely help weak pupils to take the appropriate acquisition manners for dissimilar educational undertakings.2.2 Learning manners in schoolroomThe schoolroom still remains a good and comfy topographic point for pupils in larning their linguistic communication. Specifically, pupils ‘ acquisition manners have to be taken into history while learning English. In a survey by ( Haynes, 2001 ) , the linguistic communication scholars use certa in manners, particularly in their female parent lingua while larning their linguistic communication, and these manners are transferred when they learn a foreign linguistic communication. Similarly, several surveies ( Oxford 1993 ; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990 ) showed that pupils of linguistic communications used assorted larning techniques such as memorisation, repeat, and imitation, development of positive feeling to linguistic communication and application of information. In a research survey by ( Hayes, 1997 ; Strevens, 1978 ; Harmer, 1983 ) , big English categories are frequently related to miss of control and concentration, break, schoolroom interaction, peculiarly deficiency in the ability to talk English fluently. Furthermore, overcrowded category is one of the restraints on effectual instruction and acquisition. Besides, big categories cut down instructor ‘s attending, produces existent physical uncomfortableness and distraction that negatively affect scholar ‘s attitudes towards their acquisition. Bloom ( 1976 ) , making chances for little category group work which helps each other and proves to be a utile manner to actuate pupils and right mistakes. He besides believed that the size of the group is one of the chief elements which influences in linguistic communication acquisition. In covering with the jobs associated with big categories, Nnaji ( 1991 ) proposed tutorial categories as a solution to assist cut down the threat of big categories. She accepted as the truth that tutorial categories should be used to shorten the defects of big categories. Harmonizing to her, tutorials are debate Sessionss where instructors and pupils talk to each other and show their positions on subjects they did non wholly understand The learning manner of Kampuchean pupils is typically memorisation at the disbursal of realistic intent. Consequently, they would instead larn grammar and reading than on hearing and speech production. Specifically, most Kampuchean scholars feel more comfy and gratifying with holding things which are written on the whiteboard in order that they can compose them down and survey at place. Hopefully, pupils hope to acquire press releases of sum-ups or talk lineations. Furthermore, some Kampuchean scholars reveal that they face a batch of force per unit areas of how to accommodate the new cultural environment and how to acquire on with their equals in category. Some feel lonely because the ways they dress or talk are so different. ( Nguyen 2001 ) However, a figure of personality features have been associated with successful linguistic communication acquisition. These include being willing to take hazards ( Ruben 1979 as cited in Willis 2001 ) , holding self-confident ( Heyde as cited in Freeman and Long 1991 ) , and being interested ( Ellis and Sinclair as cited in Willis 2001 )2.3 Vocabulary acquisitionIn larning a foreign linguistic communication, vocabulary plays a critical function. It is one factor tie ining with the four accomplishments such as speech production, listening, reading and composing. In a research article by Mohd et Al. ( 2009 ) , investigated the rating larning vocabulary schemes of undergraduate EFL scholars and its relation to the scholars ‘ vocabulary size. There are five assorted classs of vocabulary larning schemes such as finding, memory, societal, cognitive, and metacognitive. Consequently, the findings of this survey led to some suggestions to better pupils ‘ vocabulary acquisition, dev eloped their vocabulary size, and enhanced their English acquisition. As for the instance of EFL Cambodian schoolrooms, Keuk ( 2009 ) , found that most instructors use practical accustomed learning methods such as vocabulary interlingual rendition from 2nd linguistic communication to first linguistic communication. Therefore, pupils are taught to memorise balls of English linguistic communication with chiefly focused on grammar and vocabulary. Maghsodi et Al. ( 2010 ) , reading should be encouraged either inside or outside category because it is the most of import tool which helps supply scholars with the vocabulary acquisition. It is believed that the more scholars are exposed to new words, they more they are likely to retrieve them. In the survey by Minji ( 2008 ) , explored which vocabulary direction is more helpful for larning English vocabulary. Consequently, each instructional attack is required to analyze, reappraisal, and integrate to find the utility as a whole. In the visible radiation of the major findings of this survey is that vocabulary direction is effectual overall for EFL scholars even though there are some instructional attacks which are non related to effectual acquisition. Harmonizing to National Reading Panel ( 2000 ) , helped find the effectual deductions of vocabulary direction for first linguistic communication scholars, including learning vocabulary both straight and indirectly, the importance of repeat and multiple exposures to vocabulary points, reconstituting vocabulary undertakings, and implying active battle in larning undertakings for vocabulary.2.4 Grammar acquisitionGrammar is viewed as an indispensable component for communicating to take topographic point because it identifies how linguistic communication is used. Harmonizing to Larsen et Al. ( 1997 ) , the misinterpretation of the function of grammar is recognized to the fact that it is ever considered to be governed by many fixed regulations. As for the instance of Mat et Al. ( 2010 ) , turn outing the assorted between the methodological outlooks and the scholars in contrast to the existent instruction methodological analysis followed by their teachers. More significantly, this research article focuses on the five facets medium of direction, including grammar direction, teachers as theoretical account, the utility of boring, apery and memorisation, and the usage of educational tools which is pertained to the foreign linguistic communication methodological analysis. In the determination of the survey, a serious divergency between pupils ‘ mentality and their existent schoolroom in footings of how grammar is instructed. Besides, grammar regulations should be explained and should non be trained and taught explicitly.2.5 Reading mannersReading involves a assortment of factors which may hold an impact on scholars ‘ reading ability. Weaver ( 1988 ) defined reading as the procedure of building intending through the e nergetic interaction among the reader ‘s bing cognition, the information recommended by the written linguistic communication, and the state of affairs in reading context. In a survey by ( Miller & A ; Yochum, 1991 ; Donnell & A ; Wood, 1999 ) , maintained that the reading troubles pupils face may be related to inaccurate cognition of the reading procedure, deficiency involvement and motive, eloquence, construct denseness, organisation, and hard vocabulary. Comprehension or reading schemes show how readers conceive of a undertaking, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they do non understand. In short, such schemes are procedures used by the scholar to heighten reading comprehension and overcome comprehension failures ( Singhal, 2001 ) . In a 2nd linguistic communication survey, Hosenfeld ( 1977 ) used a think-aloud process to place dealingss between certain types of reading schemes and successful or unsuccessful 2nd linguistic communication reading. The successful reader, for case, kept the significance of the transition in head while reading and skipped less of import words but the unsuccessful reader lost the significance of the sentences when decoded and rarely skipped unimportant words.2.6 Speaking mannersSpeaking is a key for pass oning worldwide. It is the productive accomplishment in linguistic communication acquisition, which places a great demand on pupils ‘ logical and critical thought. In the article by Widiati ( 2006 ) , discussed jobs in the instruction of EFL speech production, activities usually practiced, stuffs normally used in EFL speech production categories, and appraisal of unwritten English proficiency. Based on the determination, Indonesian scholars often have non achieved a good degree of ora1 English proficiency. For illustration, Mukminatien ( 1999 ) showed that pupils of English section have a batch of errors while talking. The errors consist of pronunciation, grammatical truth, vocabulary, eloquence, and synergistic communicating. Likewise, Ihsan ( 1999 ) found in his survey that pupils are likely to do mistakes, including the abuse of parts of address, syntactical building, lexical pick, and voice. Ihsan et Al. ( 1999 as cited in Eyiyuliwati 1997 ) , showed that pupils had troubles in utilizing grammar and in using new vocabulary points in talking category. When the ability to talk English is a really hard undertaking sing to the nature of what is included in speech production. Not all of the pupils in an EFL speech production category have the courage to talk. Many of the pupils feel nervous in a speech production category and some are likely to maintain silent. In the research by Padmadewi ( 1998 ) proved that pupils go toing a speech production category frequently felt dying because of demands from the speech production undertakings necessitating them to make presentation separately and spontaneously within restriction of clip. While Tutyandari ( 2005 ) , stated that pupils maintain quiet due to the deficiency of autonomy, prior, cognition about subjects, and hapless relationship between instructor and scholar. In order to cover with pupils ‘ limited cognition, she recommended talking instructors make active the pupils ‘ anterior cognition by inquiring inquiries associating to subjects under argument. Besides, she suggest ed that pupils ‘ self-pride can be improved and their jitteriness reduced by inquiring them to work in little groups. To accomplish a higher quality of the instruction of EFL speech production and to better the speech production accomplishment of Indonesian EFL scholars, Mukminatien ( 1999 ) , suggested instructors give their scholars more equal input for acquisition in the schoolroom and force them to utilize English either in or outside the schoolroom. More specifically, Citraniugtyas ( 2005 ) stated that a soundless speech production category can be made more active by delegating undertakings which develop pupils ‘ critical thought accomplishments. Purjayanti ( 2003 ) found presentation to be helpful to promote pupils to pass on thoughts in their Fieldss of survey. She added that through presentation and its readying pupils were able non merely to pattern speech production, but besides to seek for stuffs and present them in a planned manner. Small group treatment is an extra activity that can be conducted in EFL speech production schoolroom. Its purpose is to ease scholars to be participated actively in a treatment refering with pupils ‘ limited figure. In a survey of Murdibjono ( 2001 ) demonstrated that discoursing in little groups is an effectual activity so that pupils have more clip to pattern talking with their schoolmates.2.7 Listening mannersListening is a critical component in the competent linguistic communication public presentation of EFL university pupils. Therefore, listening comprehension is an of import sill, every bit good as requirement for unwritten proficiency. In the survey of Goh ( 1997 ) , troubles to listening compaction can be divided into individual cognition and undertaking cognition. The obstructions of individual cognition are: the restriction of vocabulary, idiomatic look, sorts of input with new construction, fast address. While the undertaking cognition related to new vocabulary, ass orted local speech patterns, address rate, the involvement and intent of listening, bing cognition and experience, physical factors, and the length of sentence construction. However, he suggested two schemes for assisting scholars become better hearer. The first is direct scheme ; it aims at increasing perceptual experiences. Learners L2 can better the hearing by practising perceptual experiences sound, content, pronunciation of new words, words, and modulation characteristics. The 2nd is the indirect scheme ; its purpose is to better cognition about talkers, undertakings, and scheme. Harmonizing Hann ( 2000 ) , the usage of uneffective larning schemes of scholars may impact their hearing comprehension and scholars ‘ experience. Assorted sorts of listening comprehension may do some jobs due to the insufficiency of the message from factors associating to the talkers ‘ address, and to the scholar proficiency in listening comprehension. Furthermore, it was found that EFL scholars are ill equipped with effectual hearing schemes, accomplishments, activities. To assist better better the hearing comprehension, in a survey by Wen-sheng ( 2007 ) , conducted in China, hearing is really important input, but many of the pupils in Chaozhou Normal College, Hanshan Normal University, and Chaozhou Guangdong were upset with listening. In the determination of the survey, there were a batch of important listening techniques which were neglected by instructors. However, a research worker suggests that more listening schemes should be taught in categories and learning program is given.2.8 Writing mannersIn the article by Hafida ( 2010 ) , conducted in Tlemsen, Algeria, analyze both the university demands for the English academic grade in Algeria, and pupils ‘ demands so as to better a pedagogical model that would react both exigencies. As a consequence of the probe, the research worker suggested the execution of a scheme such as based authorship course of study for EFL university pupils that would develop their strategic competency and consolidate their lingual cognition. Since the Chinese pupils ‘ hapless communicative ability in unwritten and written English, there is a concern in English instruction and acquisition in China. In the article by Yan ( 2006 ) explored a successful method so as to develop pupils ‘ speech production ability. As a consequence of the determination, Scenario-based Learning, two brooding theoretical accounts are introduced to better the unwritten and composing in English. Scenario-Based Learning ( SBL ) is a structured method for calculating out some issues impacting the lives of specific persons or groups of persons. Besides, It confronts pupils with an of import context based on existent life state of affairs which requires them to take portion in an imagined series of events. In the survey by Osman ( 2010 ) , investigates the troubles faced by novice academic authors and proposes recommendations to assist these authors to be better collaborative authors. In the determination of the survey, novice authors have troubles during their collaborative authorship, including inability to work with their spouses, hapless linguistic communication proficiency, hapless research accomplishments, holding limited clip to discourse, missing thoughts, confronting emphasis during collaborative authorship, ; hence, it is suggested that the university and the lectors should supply them with the chances of ( 1 ) supplying intensive reading plan ; ( 2 ) learning interpersonal accomplishments ; ( 3 ) instruction clip direction ; ( 4 ) supplying pre-collaborative writing Sessionss ; ( 5 ) supplying pre-collaborative writing Sessionss ; ( 6 ) and supplying teacher/ equal aid Harmonizing to Bereiter and Scardamalia ( 1987 ) as cited in Rouiller ( 2005 ) , composing by and large suffers from deficiency of interaction that stimulates unwritten production in conversation. However, to guarantee successful acquisition, Lam & A ; Wong ( 2000 ) as cited in Lourdunathan & A ; Menon ( 2005 ) , believe that scholars should show appropriate concerted behaviour and peer support. It is necessary because some pupils have troubles in forming their thoughts and are weak in English linguistic communication every bit good. This can impede them from take parting in their collaborative work.Chapter 3Methodology3.1Research designSince the purpose of this survey significantly focuses on a private university in Cambodia, the research worker will utilize a qualitative attack. The research worker will research the acquisition manners of EFL Cambodian university pupils. The instance survey method tends to consistently look into an event or a set of related events with the specific purposes of depicting and explicating this phenomenon. ( Berg, 2009 )3.2 ParticipantsThis is a instance survey which explores the acquisition manners of Kampuchean university pupils. The participants of this survey will be selected from a private university in Phnom Penh. The sample will dwell of 6 pupils, who are analyzing English Literature in that university. Besides, the research worker will take both female and male pupils. Before carry oning interviews, the research worker will do an assignment and advise the grounds of visit to the Rector of University.3.3 InstrumentWith the intent of acquiring trusty information, unstructured interview, informal conversation and participant observation will be used in order to obtain dependable informations. Interviews will be taped and open-ended inquiries ( see below appendix for inside informations ) . In add-on to the above interviews, category observation will be utile tool to obtain informations. The observation checklist will fundame ntally concentrate on pupils larning manners both in schoolroom and outside schoolroom.3.4 Data CollectionSince the qualitative informations aggregation process requires the research to plunge wholly in the nature scene, the research worker will transport out unstructured interview after observation and taking notes. The interviews will dwell of open-ended inquiries and tape-recording ( see Appendix below ) for the inside informations. Prior to transporting out the interviews, the research worker will inquire permission from university curate and pupils. The research worker expects each interview will take around 50 proceedingss and occur in the university or outside the university. The options for choosing site for interview will be provided for the participants because it helps cut down the participants ‘ troubles. Furthermore, the survey aim will be verbally informed to participants before carry oning interviews. With permission from participants, the research worker will u tilize tape-recording to enter the whole interviews. The research worker might inquire different participants to reply the inquiries based on their penchant. The research worker will personally detect English pupils utilizing participant observation techniques. The observation will fundamentally concentrate on pupils larning manners in schoolroom. The pupils will be asked to supply their responses about the acquisition manners of EFL Cambodian university pupils based on their thoughts. The experimental protocol will include the descriptive activities in the scene and brooding thoughts from the research worker. Besides these observations, informal conversation will be made with participants in order to obtain deeply their perceptual experiences about linguistic communication acquisition manners. The research worker may take a few brief notes in the field puting but take notes of learning techniques and behaviours after observation.3.5 Data AnalysisThe research worker will form and fi x the information for analysis every bit shortly as the information has been collected from the participants. Then the research worker will pass tonss of clip reading all informations and listening to tape entering in order to cancel the irrelevant information. Next, the research worker will code the text to categorise the information. Furthermore, relationship of informations will be identified to construe the significance of informations collected. Finally, in order to guarantee the dependability and cogency of informations, the research worker will seek to reread the informations and inquire researcher squad to look into the information. Furthermore, matrixes and graphs will be specifically presented. Therefore, they will visualise the troubles of Kampuchean EFL pupils ‘ acquisition manners3.6 Ethical ConsiderationTo successfully carry on this survey, the research worker will take into consideration about some precautions. First, the consent signifier will be given to the p articipants to subscribe if they truly agree to fall in in the survey. Second, the intent of this survey will be clearly informed to participants in order to construct common apprehension and resonance. Third, the research worker will deeply state the participants that their engagement will be voluntary and halting from interviews will be the participants ‘ pick. Finally, the research worker will maintain informations collected in secret topographic point which no 1 besides research worker will hold entree to acquire it. Furthermore, I will convey together the names of participants but maintain them confidential. Personal identifiers will be released to the populace in a manner that protects the designation of participants.3.7 Limitation of ResearchThis survey is guided with the undermentioned restrictions, which affect the generalization of the determination. First, the survey merely focuses on university English pupils in Department of English. Second, the survey may be limi ted in its analysis or generalization as it will be conducted in one Kampuchean private university, in which 6students will be selected. Third, since this survey will chiefly research merely of import acquisition manners, some points might be ignored. However, the intent of this survey is non to supply the wide generalisation but to research the acquisition manners of Kampuchean university pupils in a private university in Phnom Penh. Therefore, the above-named combination fortunes might restrict understanding and rating ; nevertheless, these are by and large overwhelmed and controlled by the research design.

The Indonesian Financial Crisis Essay Online For Freedere - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2772 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Tags: Banking Essay Did you like this example? Introduction The occurrence and severity of the Indonesian financial crisis in 1997 surprised everyone. Indonesian economic performance has ranked among the best in the world, so that praised by the World Bank (1993) as a part of East Asian miracle. Hill (1998) notes that before the crisis almost every technical economic indicator looked safe. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Indonesian Financial Crisis Essay Online For Freedere" essay for you Create order Economic growth was robust in average of 7.9 percent during 1990 to 1996. The inflation rate associated with the growth path was persistently high, but was still below 10 percent. The average inflation rate associated with the 7.9 percent was 8.3 percent in CPI, and even reached 6.5 percent in 1996. As pointed out by McLeod (1997), inflation was falling, not rising, and the relatively large current account deficit was not caused by unsustainably rapid growth but by high capital inflow, which made sustainable high growth possible, and was itself a response to high returns to investment in Indonesia. In other words, the deficit on current account of the balance of payments looked manageable. The fiscal accounts were in surplus, except a little negative in 1992 and 1993. The structure of savings and investment associated with the growth path was good enough. Official foreign exchange reserves looked adequate and were trending upwards. Even many also believed that Indonesia was in muc h better position and strategy in responding to the regional currency crisis compared to Thailand. (Feridhanusetyawan, et al, 1998). First, macroeconomic indicators, especially current account deficit was at around 4 percent of GDP while Thailand already reached around 9 percent. Second, Indonesias Rupiah was not fixed like the Thai Bath, which allowed for some adjustments in responding to the speculative attacks. Third, the slowdown in export growth in 1996 was not as severe as Thailand mainly because real wages grew at much slower rate due to less tight labor market compared to Thailand. In short time after the crisis started, however, it was clear that Indonesia was in much worse condition compared to other Asian countries in crisis. Both foreign and domestic investors have fled, and hundreds of corporations are bankrupt. The banking system has effectively ground to a halt, with very little new lending taking place and dozens of banks insolvent. Domestic demand has plummeted. Thousands of Indonesians have lost their jobs, and millions more face a substantial reduction in their standard of living. (Radelet, 1999) Even after ten years of Indonesian crisis, it is still unclear what really the roots of crisis. The common agreement among scholars is that the existing models so called first generation models (Krugman, 1979; Flood and Garber, 1984) and second generation models (Obstfeld, 1986) failed to explain the Indonesian financial crisis. The failure of the first generation models can be seen from these facts. Government budget was balance or moving into surplus (partly in appropriate fiscal response to higher net private capital flows). Growth in monetary aggregates was fairly high, but cannot be described as runaway monetary expansion. Inflation rate was coming down, nominal GDP growth was largely at levels corresponding to money creation, and Indonesia was at a stage of development where money demand was still growing. The logic of the second-generat ion crisis model does not apply to the Indonesian financial crisis either. There was no such trade-off between the benefits of a credible exchange rate peg and the costs in terms of higher interest rates, higher unemployment or lower growth of defending the peg before the crisis erupted. Past and expected growth was enviably high, interest rates and sovereign yield spreads were going down, not up, and unemployment was informal (as usual in developing countries). In other words, when the crisis began in mid-1997 Indonesia did not have substantial unemployment nor other apparent incentives to abruptly abandon the pegged exchange rate regimes generally followed in the region in order to pursue a more expansionary policy as suggested by second-generation crisis models. Research Objective While many studies are still difficult to find common agreement about the causes of the Indonesian financial crisis, this paper argues that the weak Indonesian banking sector as result of improper banking deregulation contributed to the crisis. In this respect, this paper provides an empirical test of the view that the banking was fragile, and to determine the factor contributing to banking fragility by using individual bank balance sheet data. Methodological Issues II.1. Framework Banks continue to dominate the financial systems of most developing and transition countries, as well as Indonesia. As illustration, the study of the World Bank (1997) shows that the ratio of banking sector assets to all financial institutions assets of Indonesia in 1994 was 0.9. The importance of banking system in Indonesia can also be considered from the ratio of deposit money bank assets to GDP at 0.65 in the same year. In another hand, banking is by nature a high exposure business. As financial intermediaries, it is the business of banks to take on risks passed on them. Banks are typically exposed to a host of different types of risks. Aside from credit risks (default risk) that arise from intermediating between depositors and borrowers, banks also face interest rate risk, currency risk, and market risk. (Bacha, 1998) Based on the importance and the nature of banking system as explained above, it is important to maintain bank soundness. For achieving sound banking system, si nce the early 1980s, the Indonesian government introduced banking deregulation. It seems such deregulation encouraged operating environment of the Indonesian financial system. However, discussions even prior to the crisis had pointed to the underdevelopment of governance in the Indonesian banking sector, resulting weak banking sector. Some analyses (including Frankel, 1998; Krugman, 1998; Noland, 1998; Yellen, 1998) as summarized by Cabalu (1999), note this stylist features: connected lending (i.e. lending to related parties); excessive concentration of lending to particular borrowers or areas; excessively high loan to valuation ratios; inadequate covenants to restrict the activities of borrowers; lending based on asset values, rather than capacity to service from income; failure to recognize and provide for deterioration in loan quality; lending to firms or individuals as a result of government directive, rather than on a commercial basis; lack of transparency and inadequate pruden tial regulations; strong expectations of government bailouts should banks get into difficulties. For maintaining sound banking system, Lindgren, et al. (1996) present a framework for sound banking that comprises a supportive operating environment, internal governance, external discipline provided by market forces, and external governance provided by regulation and supervision at the domestic and international levels. (Figure 1) No single of one of these elements is sufficient by itself; each is subject to failure, or may be underdeveloped in a given economy. Figure 1: Framework of banking sector soundness Supportive operating environment Internal governance Banking sector soundness External governance Market discipline Regulation and supervision Source: Lindgren, et al. (1996) In analyzing the existing weakness on the Indonesian banking sector, which contributed to the crisis, this paper employs that framework with some modifications. This paper argues that banking deregulation has imposed by the Indonesian government since the early 1980s significantly encouraged the operating environment of the Indonesian financial system. We can note the greater access to banking sector due to increasing the number of banks and branches, increasing bank lending, developing the size of financial sector, maturity structure that beneficial for corporate sector, and better performance and efficiency of banking sector. This good result, however, was undermined by underdevelopment of governance in the Indonesian banking sector. Refer to the framework presented by Lindgren et al. (1996); Indonesia did not yet successfully solve the existing governance failure, both internal and external governance failures. The se failures have caused unsoundness in the Indonesian banking sector, indicated by accumulation of non-performing assets in the banking sector. As further will be analyzed, such a banking weakness in the arena of international integration contributed in maintaining dynamics of sustained mispricings and continuous short-term capital inflows. The weak banking sector caused higher interest rates in the domestic markets so that interest rate arbitration does not take place. When interest rate arbitration does not take place, where i(d) i(f) + e + rp  [1]  , while large firms could, to some extent, take advantage of low foreign interest rates by borrowing abroad directly rather than via the intermediation of the domestic banking sector, it tended to be the smaller and perhaps less efficient firms that increased their demand for loans from the private banking sector. If this is so, then as far as the domestic banks are concerned, there is an adverse selection problem in terms of the nature of their assets, which further weakens their balance sheets. The proportion of non-performing loans (NPLs) burdening the banks may therefore be expected to rise over time. This in turn makes the supply curve of bank lending shift left (i.e. de facto increase in bank cost structure), leading to a reduction of domestic credit and a rise in the domestic equilibrium interest rate. In fact, if there is asymmetric information such that foreign investors are not aware of the increased NPLs and if consequently country/currency risk premia remain unchanged, we have the paradoxical result that increased domestic financial fragility could induce additional capital inflows in the short to medium term. Figure 2: Conceptual framework and flow of analysis Banking sector deregulation Better operating environment Governance Problem failure Weak banking sector Financial vulnerability Figure 3: Effects of banking deregulation number of banks and branches bank lending size of the financial sector Banking deregulation maturity structure performance: profitability efficiency: ex ante spreads and ex post spreads Figure 4: The governance failures in the Indonesian banking sector Internal governance failure Governance failure Market discipline failure External governance failures Regulatory and supervisory failure Figure 5: Weak banking sector and build up financial vulnerability International market integration Weak banking sector Capital inflows Interest rate differential External borrowing accumulation, especially in corporate sector Accumulation of NPLs Build up financial vulnerability A reasonable place to start is with a traditional model of the effects of financial liberalization against the background of financial repression, with an added assumption that financial intermediation occurs largely through the banking sector, with households placing their savings with the banks and the banks lending to firms for purposes of investment. Figure 6 illustrates this, where the authorities fix an interest rate at level (ic) below the equilibrium one. As a consequence there is excess demand and credit rationing. Financial liberalization allows a (higher) equilibrium rate (ie) to be established. This causes both the supply of loanable funds to increase, as saving is encouraged, and the demand for them to fall, as fewer investment projects appear profitable. Since at the equilibrium interest rate the market is cleared, there is no ration credit by other means. However, the model so far relates to a closed economy and needs to be modified to allow for a liberalized c apital account and access to international capital. International financial liberalization may also include trade in financial services. Here the key questions are: how does the domestic rate of interest compare with interest rates abroad, what is expected to happen to the exchange rate, is currency depreciation anticipated, and does the country carry a risk premium because of concerns about default and the small probability of a large negative exogenous shock. Making allowance for these factors, foreign capital will flow in for as long as the domestic rate of interest exceeds the foreign rate. In terms of Figure 7 the supply curve of loans will shift to the right, with Z2 Z1 reflecting capital inflows. However, of course, this increase in the supply of credit will tend to push down the domestic rate of interest until it is equal to the foreign rate (if), after allowing for expected currency depreciation and risk premia. Thus in equilibrium in a country with both a liberalized d omestic financial system and international financial liberalization, the following equality will tend to hold: i(d) = i(f) + e + rp where i(d) is the domestic interest rate, i(f) is the foreign interest rate, e is the expected exchange rate depreciation, and rp is the risk premium. But will it automatically follow that, with e and rp both equal to zero, i(d) = i(f)? The rapid convergence of interest rates may be prevented if the domestic banking sector is relatively inefficient and if capital inflows are intermediated only via the domestic banking sector. In these circumstances i(d) may continue to exceed i(f). However, with fuller international financial liberalization and increasing foreign competition, which may involve the establishment of foreign subsidiaries in the domestic banking sector, the costs of the domestic banks may be expected to fall. This will shift the supply curve of bank lending down and to the right. When interest rate arbitration does not take plac e, where i(d) i(f) + e + rp, while large firms could, to some extent, take advantage of low foreign interest rates by borrowing abroad directly rather than via the intermediation of the domestic banking sector, it tended to be the smaller and perhaps less efficient firms that increased their demand for loans from the private banking sector. If this is so, then as far as the domestic banks are concerned, there is an adverse selection problem in terms of the nature of their assets, which further weakens their balance sheets. The proportion of non-performing loans (NPLs) burdening the banks may therefore expected to rise over time. This in turn makes the supply curve of bank lending shift left (i.e. de facto increase in bank cost structure), leading to a reduction of domestic credit and a rise in the domestic equilibrium interest rate. In fact, if there is asymmetric information such that foreign investors are not aware of the increased NPLs and if consequently country/currency ris k premia remain unchanged, we have the paradoxical result that increased domestic financial fragility could induce additional capital inflows in the short to medium term. Figure 6: Loan market equilibrium with financial repression and financial liberalization SS0 DD0 i e ic Zd Zz Ze Zs Figure 7: International financial liberalization SS0 SS1 DD1 DD0 i id if Z2 Z1 Z II.2. Empirical Model and Econometric Procedures The empirical framework used to determine factors contribution to the banking fragility is a probit or normit model. The regression model is specified as: (1) where is commonly known as a latent variable. It is unobserved, and therefore is replaced by an observed dummy variable, , such that: (2) A bank is said to be solvent if it had a capital adequacy ratio (CAR) equal to, or more than, zero during the crisis. A bank is technically bankrupt if the CAR fell below zero. Because the shocks that occurred during the crisis were so large, a bank that maintained its CAR above zero can be called a resistant bank. Therefore, the latent variable can be defined as the ability to resist the crisis. The vector of explanatory variables, , represent the performance and conduct of a bank during the pre-crisis period. If these pre-crisis indicators can significantly explain the variation in , it can be claimed statistically that is detrimental for bank performance during the crisis. Technically, this requires relatively small error terms , in the sense that the variation in mostly belongs to the variation in . In order to accommodate the above idea, the probit estimation technique is used. In Shazam, the probability of occurrence of the dependent variable P(y=1), is described as: (3) Where F(.) represents the cumulative normal density function. The index is a linear function of , but the probabilities are not; therefore, the coefficient must be interpreted carefully. The estimation is done by maximizing the value of the log likelihood function, which is defined as: (4) The maximization of equation (4) is accomplished by non-linear estimation methods. Because it is a concave function, it has a unique solution and trial and error procedures can start from any value. The estimated coefficients tell the effect of a change in the explanatory variable on the index, rather than on the dependent variable. The effect on the dependent variable can b e computed as: (5) Where f(.) is the normal density function. It is clear from equation (5) that the effect on the dependent variable is different for each observation. Alternatively, the elasticity can be used, and is defined as: (6) Since the elasticity is different for every observation, either elasticity at means or weighted aggregate elasticity may be used. The elasticity at means is defined as: (7) The weighted aggregate elasticity is computed as: (8) A test of the null hypothesis that all are zero can be carried out by using the log-likelihood as follows: (9) Where L(0) is defined as: (10) Where N is the number of observations and S is the number of successes observed (=1). Various R ² can be computed, and the most appealing one can be selected. The Maddala R ² is computed as: (11) The Cragg-Uhler R ² is defined as: (12) The McFadden R ² is: (13) The Chow R ² is: (14)